The Battle for Biblical Theology: Reformation to Now – Part 2

Part Two: “Reason vs. Revival: Enlightenment Challenges and the Great Awakenings.” The Challenge of Enlightenment and Revival (1700s)

If the 1600s were about establishing a solid theological foundation, the 1700s were a time of intense shaking and upheaval. The Christian world found itself navigating two powerful forces that seemed to be pulling in opposite directions: the Enlightenment, which championed human reason and intellect, and the Great Awakenings, which brought spiritual revival and a renewed focus on personal conversion. While philosophers questioned traditional beliefs, revivalists preached repentance with fire and passion. The result was a theological battleground where both the mind and the soul were in play.

The Enlightenment and Its Influence on Theology

By the early 1700s, Europe was buzzing with new ideas about science, philosophy, and religion. This intellectual movement, known as the Enlightenment, encouraged people to rely more on reason and observation than on tradition or faith. It was like a tidal wave of thought sweeping across the continent, changing how people understood the world—and theology wasn’t immune to its pull.

Thinkers like John Locke and Voltaire argued that truth could be discovered through reason and empirical evidence. Religion, they said, should be no different. For many in this camp, the Bible was still important, but it wasn’t necessarily viewed as the final authority on all matters of life and faith. Instead, reason was held up as the ultimate judge. This new way of thinking posed a significant challenge to the traditional theological views that had been established in the previous century.

Deism: God as the Distant Watchmaker

One of the key theological shifts during the Enlightenment was the rise of Deism. Deists believed that God created the world, much like a watchmaker builds a clock, and then left it to run on its own. In this view, God wasn’t actively involved in the day-to-day affairs of the world. Miracles? Not real. Divine intervention? Highly unlikely. Instead, the universe operated according to natural laws, and humans, through reason, could figure out those laws.

This was a far cry from the God of the Bible, who is deeply involved in His creation (Colossians 1:17) and who, throughout Scripture, performs miracles to reveal His power and purposes (John 20:30-31). Deism flattened the relationship between God and humanity, turning what was once a dynamic, interactive relationship into something distant and impersonal.

John Locke was one of the most influential figures in this movement. His belief that religion should be rational and that human understanding of God should be based on empirical evidence rather than divine revelation laid the groundwork for many Enlightenment thinkers. Locke’s approach, while respectful of Christianity, placed human reason above Scripture as the primary source of knowledge.

Biblical Response to Enlightenment Rationalism

But here’s the thing: the Bible doesn’t paint a picture of a distant, uninvolved God. In fact, Scripture emphasizes that God is both transcendent (above all creation) and immanent (deeply involved in the world). Passages like Hebrews 1:3 affirm that Jesus “upholds the universe by the word of His power,” meaning that God’s involvement isn’t just a past event—it’s ongoing. The miracles of Jesus, from healing the sick to raising the dead, directly contradict the deist view that God is hands-off.

The Enlightenment’s reliance on reason as the primary tool for understanding the world also clashes with biblical teaching. Proverbs 3:5 advises us to “trust in the Lord with all your heart, and do not lean on your own understanding.” Reason isn’t bad—it’s a gift from God—but when it takes precedence over faith and divine revelation, it leads us away from truth rather than toward it.

The Great Awakenings: A Return to the Heart

While the intellectuals of Europe were busy pondering the role of reason in faith, something very different was happening across the Atlantic. In the American colonies, a powerful spiritual revival was unfolding. Known as the First Great Awakening, this movement was all about bringing people back to a personal experience of God. It wasn’t enough to just know about God; you had to encounter Him personally, in a way that changed your life from the inside out.

Jonathan Edwards: Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God

One of the key figures in this movement was Jonathan Edwards, a pastor and theologian known for his vivid sermons on the reality of God’s wrath and the urgent need for repentance. His most famous sermon, “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God,” painted a terrifying picture of hell, describing humanity as dangling over the flames by the mere grace of God. His preaching was a stark reminder of the consequences of sin and the desperate need for salvation.

But Edwards wasn’t just a fire-and-brimstone preacher. He was deeply committed to Scripture, and his theology was grounded in a biblical understanding of God’s holiness and justice. Passages like Hebrews 10:31, which says, “It is a fearful thing to fall into the hands of the living God,” supported his emphasis on the seriousness of sin. At the same time, Edwards passionately preached the grace of God through Christ (Romans 5:8), offering hope to all who would repent and believe.

George Whitefield: Evangelism on the Move

If Jonathan Edwards was the theologian of the Great Awakening, George Whitefield was its evangelist. Whitefield traveled extensively, preaching to massive crowds in both Britain and the American colonies. His style was dramatic, emotional, and deeply convicting, often bringing listeners to tears. Whitefield’s sermons weren’t just about doctrine; they were about transformation.

Whitefield’s message focused on the need to be “born again” (John 3:3), a phrase that he used frequently to describe the kind of personal conversion experience he believed was essential for true Christian faith. His message was simple but powerful: it wasn’t enough to belong to a church or follow religious rituals—you had to have a personal relationship with Jesus Christ.

This emphasis on personal conversion was thoroughly biblical. Jesus Himself said, “Unless one is born again, he cannot see the kingdom of God” (John 3:3). Whitefield’s preaching brought this message to the masses, igniting a spiritual renewal that would have lasting effects on both the church and society.

John Wesley and the Birth of Methodism

While Edwards and Whitefield were sparking revival in the American colonies, John Wesley was leading a similar movement back in England. Wesley, the founder of Methodism, was deeply influenced by the revivalist spirit of the time. But what set Wesley apart was his emphasis on sanctification—the process of becoming more like Christ after conversion.

Wesley taught that Christians could, by the grace of God, achieve a state of Christian perfection—a point where they were so filled with the love of God that they no longer deliberately sinned. This doctrine was controversial, and even today, scholars debate whether it aligns fully with biblical teaching.

While Scripture certainly calls believers to pursue holiness (1 Peter 1:16), it also acknowledges that sin is a persistent struggle in the life of a believer. Paul himself admits in Romans 7:18-19 that even after coming to faith, he wrestled with sin: “For I have the desire to do what is right, but not the ability to carry it out.” Wesley’s view of Christian perfection, while inspiring, may have overstated the extent to which believers can achieve sinlessness in this life.

Nevertheless, Wesley’s contribution to theology was immense. His emphasis on holiness and the role of the Holy Spirit in empowering believers to live godly lives resonated deeply with those seeking more than just nominal faith. He created a framework for Christian living that balanced personal piety with active engagement in the world.

Theology in Tension: Rationalism vs. Revivalism

What’s fascinating about the 1700s is that it wasn’t just one movement steering the ship of theology—it was two very different movements heading in opposite directions. On the one hand, the Enlightenment was pulling theology toward reason, deism, and skepticism about the supernatural. On the other hand, the Great Awakenings were drawing people back to the Bible, emphasizing personal faith, the reality of sin, and the need for a transformed life.

So, how does this tension compare with Scripture? The Bible itself holds both reason and personal experience in high regard, but it always subordinates both to the authority of God’s Word. Isaiah 1:18 says, “Come now, let us reason together,” inviting believers to use their minds in understanding God’s will. But at the same time, Scripture warns against relying too much on human wisdom (1 Corinthians 1:25) and neglecting the need for a personal, heart-level relationship with God.

The revivalists of the Great Awakening, despite their emotional and experiential approach, stayed closer to the biblical call for personal repentance and faith. The rationalists of the Enlightenment, while valuable in their pursuit of knowledge and understanding, drifted from biblical truth when they began to place human reason above divine revelation.

Conclusion: A Century of Contrasts

The 1700s brought sharp contrasts in the world of theology. The Enlightenment encouraged believers to think critically and question traditional beliefs, while the Great Awakenings brought an emotional and spiritual renewal that swept across continents. In one camp, reason reigned supreme; in the other, faith and personal experience took center stage.

But when we measure these movements against the Bible, we see that Scripture calls us to balance both the mind and the heart. God invites us to reason, but always within the framework of His revealed Word. He calls us to experience His grace personally, but never apart from the truth of the gospel. As the 1700s came to a close, the theological seeds planted during this century would continue to grow and evolve, shaping the church for years to come.

Glossary

Enlightenment: An intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries that emphasized reason, science, and human progress, often challenging traditional religious beliefs.
Deism: A belief that God created the world but does not intervene in its operations, often associated with Enlightenment thought.
Empirical Evidence: Knowledge gained through observation and experience, rather than through faith or divine revelation.
First Great Awakening: A religious revival in the American colonies during the 1730s and 1740s, emphasizing personal conversion and repentance.
Born Again: A term used by Jesus in John 3:3 to describe spiritual rebirth, necessary for entering the kingdom of God.
Sanctification: The process by which a Christian becomes more like Christ, growing in holiness and obedience to God.
Christian Perfection: John Wesley’s teaching that believers can achieve a state of holiness where they no longer sin deliberately, though this doctrine is debated.
Rationalism: A belief that reason and intellect are the primary sources of knowledge, often downplaying or rejecting supernatural revelation.

In this part, we’ve explored how theology was pulled between reason and revival, each side influencing seminaries and shaping Christian thought. In the next section, we’ll see how these two forces collided in the 1800s, leading to the rise of liberal theology and the evangelical response.