The Battle for Biblical Theology: Reformation to Now

Part One: “Foundations of Faith: The Reformation’s Lasting Impact on Theology.” The Foundations of Post-Reformation Theology (1600s)

The 1600s were a time of incredible change for the Christian church. The dust had barely settled from the Reformation, and yet, new ideas, debates, and struggles were emerging in seminaries across Europe and the colonies. If there’s one thing that remained certain throughout this time, it was this: Scripture held the highest authority. But even though the Bible was central, how it was interpreted—and what it meant for the daily life of believers—was being fiercely discussed and developed. In this part, we’ll explore how the theology of the Reformation was cemented and refined, and how key figures and movements steered the church’s understanding of God, salvation, and the role of believers.

The Reformation’s Ongoing Influence

By the 1600s, the Reformation had left an indelible mark on the church. Figures like Martin Luther and John Calvin had challenged the authority of the Catholic Church, emphasizing that salvation was by faith alone (sola fide) and that Scripture was the ultimate authority (sola scriptura). But the Reformation wasn’t just a moment in time—it was a movement that kept evolving, especially in how seminaries approached theology.

The Reformation brought a renewed focus on Scripture in its original languages—Greek, Hebrew, and Aramaic. Scholars emphasized understanding the Bible in context, pushing back against centuries of tradition that, in many ways, had muddied the waters. In this period, seminaries became laboratories for this kind of rigorous, Bible-based thinking. They were training a new generation of pastors and theologians to carry the torch of Reformed theology.

John Calvin and Reformed Theology

John Calvin, one of the most influential figures of the Reformation, didn’t just fade away after the 1500s. His teachings, particularly in Geneva, shaped theological education for generations to come. Calvin’s Institutes of the Christian Religion became a go-to resource for Reformed seminaries, and his views on predestination, the sovereignty of God, and justification by faith were foundational.

Calvin believed that God had chosen, or “elected,” certain people for salvation before the foundation of the world (Ephesians 1:4-5). This wasn’t something humans could earn or even influence—God’s grace alone (Ephesians 2:8-9) was responsible for saving sinners. This theology shaped seminaries, especially in places like Switzerland, the Netherlands, and Scotland. It was Calvin’s laser-focus on Scripture that left a lasting impression, with his systematic theology rigorously rooted in biblical texts.

But, of course, Calvin’s ideas weren’t without their controversies. His doctrine of predestination was, and still is, hotly debated. Does God truly predestine some for salvation and others for damnation? And if so, where does that leave free will? These were the kinds of questions that dominated theological discussions in Reformed seminaries throughout the 1600s.

The Westminster Assembly and Confessional Theology

Across the English Channel, the Westminster Assembly was shaping the future of theology in Britain. In the 1640s, during a time of political and religious upheaval, the Assembly met to create what became known as The Westminster Confession of Faith. This document was—and still is—one of the most comprehensive summaries of Reformed theology. The Confession clearly stated that Scripture alone was the ultimate authority, going so far as to claim that nothing should be added to or taken away from the Bible (Deuteronomy 4:2, Revelation 22:18-19).

One of the critical contributions of the Westminster Confession was its insistence on the clarity and sufficiency of Scripture. This means that everything necessary for salvation, faith, and life was present in the Bible. While this may seem like common sense to us today, it was a radical declaration at the time, especially in light of the Catholic Church’s emphasis on tradition and the teachings of the Church Fathers as additional sources of authority.

The Westminster Confession also doubled down on covenant theology, the idea that God relates to His people through covenants, from Adam to Christ. According to this framework, the covenant of grace was fulfilled in Jesus, who perfectly obeyed God and bore the punishment for human sin. This was a core teaching in seminaries aligned with the Presbyterian tradition, shaping the way pastors preached about salvation and God’s promises.

Puritan Theology: A Call to Holiness

While Calvin and the Westminster Assembly were setting the doctrinal stage in Europe, the Puritans were pushing for even greater reforms within the Church of England. The Puritans were known for their strict adherence to Scripture and their desire to purify the church of anything they saw as unbiblical. For them, theology wasn’t just a set of doctrines—it was a way of life. Every aspect of existence was to be lived in obedience to God’s Word, down to the smallest detail.

Puritans like John Owen and Richard Baxter focused on the holiness of the Christian life. They believed that sanctification, the process of becoming more like Christ, was central to the Christian faith. This focus on sanctification was deeply biblical, aligning with passages like 1 Thessalonians 4:3, where Paul exhorts believers to pursue holiness, and Hebrews 12:14, which states that without holiness, no one will see the Lord.

Puritan seminaries were known for their strict academic and moral standards. Students were expected to study hard, live modestly, and pray often. They took passages like 1 Corinthians 10:31 (“whether you eat or drink, or whatever you do, do all to the glory of God”) seriously. Everything was an act of worship, and they believed that Christian living should reflect the highest standards of biblical morality.

However, the Puritans were also controversial. Their strict moral code and emphasis on predestination sometimes made them seem rigid and harsh. Critics claimed that their focus on sin and holiness led to legalism, and they were often accused of being intolerant toward those who didn’t share their views. Despite these criticisms, the Puritans’ influence on theology in both Britain and the American colonies was profound.

Biblical Authority and Hermeneutics in the 1600s

What tied all these movements together was a deep commitment to biblical authority. Whether it was Calvin’s detailed exegesis of Scripture, the Westminster Assembly’s confessional theology, or the Puritans’ call to holiness, all of these groups agreed on one thing: the Bible was the final word on all matters of faith and life.

The seminaries of the 1600s applied what we would now call literal-grammatical hermeneutics. This means they took the Bible at face value, interpreting the text according to its plain meaning in its historical and grammatical context. They believed that the Bible, though written in a specific time and culture, carried eternal truths applicable to all believers. They also adhered to the principle that Scripture interprets Scripture—that difficult passages should be understood in light of clearer ones (2 Peter 1:20-21).

In contrast to the allegorical interpretations that had dominated much of medieval theology, the seminaries of the 1600s insisted on a return to the text itself. They believed that the Bible was clear and understandable without needing to be reinterpreted through layers of tradition or church authority. In this way, they sought to return theology to its biblical roots.

Conclusion: A Foundation for Future Theology

The 1600s were a time of cementing and refining the theological gains of the Reformation. While debates over predestination, the nature of salvation, and the role of holiness raged on, the common thread was an unwavering commitment to Scripture. Whether in the seminaries of Geneva, England, or the American colonies, theology in this period was driven by a desire to remain true to the Bible, to interpret it faithfully, and to apply it rigorously to both doctrine and life.

The foundations laid in this era would shape the future of seminaries and theological education for centuries to come. The emphasis on sola scriptura, the return to the biblical text, and the insistence on rigorous study and moral integrity became hallmarks of Reformed and Puritan theology. These foundations set the stage for the next great challenges that theology would face, as new ideas began to emerge in the Enlightenment and beyond.

Glossary

Sola Scriptura: A Reformation principle meaning “Scripture alone.” It holds that the Bible is the ultimate authority for Christian faith and practice, above church tradition or human reason.
Predestination: The belief that God has chosen certain people for salvation before the foundation of the world, based on His will and purpose, not on any foreseen merit or action.
Justification by Faith: The doctrine that believers are made right with God (justified) through faith in Jesus Christ, not through their own works or efforts (Romans 3:28).
Covenant Theology: A theological framework that sees God’s relationship with humanity as structured through covenants, particularly the covenant of works (with Adam) and the covenant of grace (fulfilled in Christ).
Sanctification: The process of becoming more like Christ, growing in holiness and obedience to God’s Word.
Literal-Grammatical Hermeneutics: A method of interpreting the Bible that seeks to understand the text in its historical and grammatical context, taking the words at face value.
Exegesis: The process of drawing out the meaning of a biblical text through careful study and interpretation.
Confessional Theology: A system of doctrine expressed in formal creeds or confessions, such as the Westminster Confession of Faith, which summarize and codify key biblical teachings.

This section sets the stage for understanding how Scripture was the bedrock of theology in the 1600s and how this commitment shaped the future of Christian seminaries and theological thought.